History of the origin of human civilizations and agriculture is of course much older than the documentation in the form of inscriptions and bas-reliefs or tombs can tell us. This section is only based on documented history. The most common definition of civilization is “an advanced state of development in human society, marked by progress in the arts and sciences, the extensive use of writing, and complex political and social institutions.” The research in front of you is the most accurate, up-to-date and scientific document according to the latest archeological and historical discoveries and evidence of the ancient history. This sections contains a summarized historical timeline: A journey through time: 8000 B.C. to Present day.

History has always been the greatest teacher of mankind. Going through past civilizations leads us to a more advanced & experienced way in order to achieve our goals. Foundations & principles of those ancient civilizations & societies are the best techniques to conclude a better way of living & basing our future.

8000 B.C. - The Agricultural Revolution made permanent settlements possible and the creation of complex civilizations started. Monumental architecture and more elaborate forms of artistic representation reflect an increasingly differentiated social hierarchy. Forms of administration and recording are developed as cities emerge across the region. The Persian plateau became the cradle of one of the oldest civilizations and Kingdoms in history. The Persian Civilization (Shush) and (Eilam); was ahead of Egypt by 500 years, of india, by 1000 years, and of China, by 2000 years, of Greece by 3000 years, and of Rome, by 4000 years! In the Bronze Age the Eilam civilization stretched across the Zagros mountains, connecting Mesopotamia and the Iranian Plateau. The kingdoms of Aratta known from cuneiform sources was located in the Central Iranian Plateau. Professor Arthur A. Pope, the famous Historian and Orientalist wrote that the world owes its greatest industrial developments, in the early stages, to the Persian Civilization and that the beginning of evolution of man starts with the history of Persia.

7000 B.C. - Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Archaeological evidence associated with Elam has been dated to before 7500 B.C. making it among the world's oldest historical civilizations. “Susa” was the capital of a ancient kingdom Elam. The Elamites called their region “haltamtu” which was translated as Elam by the neighboring Akkadians. The Elamites were an a non-Semitic Alpine people who had migrated to the Iranian plateau in prehistoric times.

6290 B.C. - The very first complex civilization in Persia was The “Shoosh Civilization” or in English “Susa Civilization.” (in today's Khoozestan Iran). So far this has been reported as the oldest civilization which have ever existed on Earth. By civilization, we mean civilized city government, city state or Kingdom and an advanced state of development in human society, marked by progress in the arts and sciences, the extensive use of writing, and complex political and social institutions etc. The ancient capital city of Susa is mentioned in Old Testament as the place where prophet Daniel lived. The city name is derived from Shashana, a member of water lily family of flowers, believed to grow in lakes and swamps outside this biblical city in ancient times. Susa was the capital of the ancient kingdom Elam. During this era the number of settled communities increased, particularly in the eastern Zagros mountains.

6000 B.C. - The Urban Revoution: The Susa civilization in Iran became a city-state and ruled by Governors from 6000 B.C. to 3750 B.C. Some Governors were subject rulers, some autonomous, and some independent. The Haji Firuz Tepe Wine Jar is the oldest archaeological finding of wine-making in the world (found at a Neolithic village site in Iran). Wine has a complex and detailed history from its development to the spread of wine production methods throughout the world. The earliest evidence of wine production comes from an area in Persia called Hajji Firuz Tepe. Here, archeologists discovered the first wine press along with an amphora (a large vase with a narrow neck used primarily to store wine and olive oil) that was layered with the residue of tannin and tartrate crystals, both of which are found in wine. Carbon dating estimates that these artifacts to date back to approximately 6000 B.C. The Persians exported/traded wine as far as Cuprus and Egypt.

5022 B.C. - Mithraism: The oldest traces of this bonnet date back to Mithra, the Persian divinity of the Sun, of friendship, oath, love, and wisdom. The name Mithra (Mehr) comes from the Avestan language (Old Persian). Mithraism was the most widespread religion in Europe before Christianity. Mithras is spiritual light contending with spiritual darkness, and through his labors the kingdom of darkness shall be lit with heaven's own light; the Eternal will receive all things back into his favor, the world will be redeemed to God. The impure are to be purified, and the evil made good, through the mediation of Mithras, the reconciler of Ahriman (Devil). Mithras is the Good, his name is Love. In relation to the Eternal he is the source of grace, in relation to man he is the life-giver and mediator. The statues of Mithra, which have survived to present day, represent Mithra dressed in Persian and wearing a floating cape; he is kneeling on the primordial bull, holding a dagger in the right hand and drawing the bull's head towards the back with the left. “I am a star which goes with thee and shines out of the depths.” - Mithraic saying

  The ancient Statue of Mithra (Collection: Museum of the Louvre, Paris, France)

4200-1800 B.C. - The first wave of Arian migration (Indo-Aryan) to Persia and the beginning of the distinction between Indo-European tribes. The time period for the second Mass Aryan migration wave is assigned to roughly 2150-1800 B.C. The Aryans gave Persia its historical name: Airyana, the land of the Aryans from which the name “Iran/Aryan” comes. Arian Tribes who emigrated to the west became the ancestors of Greeks and people who chose east as their destination came to be known as Indo-Iranians. Aryan (Arian) means “noble” or “honorable”. It is widely held to have been used as an ethnic self-designation of the Iranians. When the Arians finally took over most of the plateau they started organizing their domains. Small cities, headed by local mayors, and each independent of each other with almost no unity. This method soon proved useless, especially under the constant attack of new masters of Mesopotamia, Assyrians. Slowly, the Iranian tribes re-organized themselves into kingdoms, and then empires. The Iranians are the most ancient known speakers of Indo-European languages, the word Aryan was adopted to refer not only to the Indo-Iranian people, but also to Indo-European speakers as a whole. In Europe, the concept of an Aryan race became influential in the early 20th century as linguists and ethnologists argued that speakers of these Indo-European languages constitute a distinctive race, descended from an ancient people. The Persians have always called their region the land of the Arians.

3900 B.C. - The first united Persian Kingdom of Susa, Sialk (near Kashan), a complex city and military state on the Iranian plateau, was built. The Iranian governor before this period was a subject ruler under Babylon, then he became an independent King/Shah of Susa. Before this period, there were Governors ruling Susa, not Shahs. After this date, Susa became an independent kingdom. The ancient Elamite Empire was the first large scale empire located in southwestern Iran (2800 B.C.) and Susa was the primary capital of the Empire. It played an important part in Babylonian opposition to the brutal Assyrian domination. Susa Kingdom reign ended by start of the Mighty Persian Achaemenid Empire. Written documents has been found in the region with over 6372 years of documented Shahanshahi Iranian Federalism History. The Elamite culture played a crucial role in the Achaemenid Persian Empire that succeeded it 539 B.C. when the Elamite language remained among those in official use.

2350 B.C. - Susa city-state falls under the rule of the Mesopotamian kings of Akkad and, later, the Third Dynasty of “Ur”. Influenced by the art of Mesopotamia, Puzur-Inshushinak is the first king of Susa to leave large-scale statuary. A number of his monuments are inscribed with bilingual inscriptions: Akkadian uneiform and Elamite linear script. At the end of the period, the Elamites invade southern Mesopotamia, destroying the city of “Ur”. The Elamite kingdom was later destroyed by attacks from Babylonians. Elamite influence spread throughout the southern regions of Iran by their cuneiform writing system, and rock inscriptions.

Elam is today known as the modern province of “Khuzestan”, located in south west of Persia where the countries immense oil industry is based. Khuzestan is the most ancient Iranian province and is often referred to as the “birthplace of the nation”.

1768 B.C. - The birthday of Zoroaster (Zarathushtra), the great philosopher and prophet, and founder of Zoroastrianism: the first Universal and Monotheist Religion and the root of much of Jewish, Christian and Islamic doctrine and belief. Zoroaster’s birthday falls on March 26th 1767 B.C. (6th of Farvardin in Persian Calendar) This date is more significant and special for the Zoroastrians. The Zoroastrian Year Calendar is based on his 40th Birthday, right now, the year is 3748 Zoroastrian Holy Year. continue »

  “Doqdu” was the Mother of “Asho Zarathushtra”, the Persian Prophet and Philosopher

1737 B.C. - Zarathushtra; The First Monotheist Prophet, he was one of the first prophets to introduce the concepts of: monotheism, duality of good and evil, mankind's free choice between the two alternatives, messianic redemption, resurrection, final judgement, heaven (the word “Paradise” comes from Old Persian), hell and the notion of an almighty, kind, loving and forgiving God. He believed man's salvation in life and in the afterlife could only be ensured through Good Thoughts, Good Words and Good Deeds. Many of these concepts had a profound influence on Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Persians adopted Zoroastrianism at a time when Greeks and, later, Romans still practiced polytheistic religions, at a time when every race considered itself to be the chosen people of Gods/God, Zarathushtra did not discriminate between race, cast and creed. Timeline: Zarathushtra built an observatory in Zabol, Sistan (eastern Iran) and it was inaugurated on 21st March 1725 B.C, the day King Vishtasp and his court converted, chose the Good Religion of Zoroastrianism and joined the Zoroastrianism Fellowship. It also provides us with the clue that the Good Religion was founded by Zarathustra, exactly twelve years earlier on vernal equinox of the 1737 B.C. Most scholars and historians today agree on a time-frame for Zarathushtra as early as 1700 B.C. continue »

The Christmas celebrations actually derive from the Persian celebration of Yalda: Yalda is the longest night of the year on the eve of the Winter Solstice and the next day is believed to be the birth day of the sun also called “Daygan”. On the Yalda night, Persians used to stay awake all night till the dawn and normally the following day: December 22 was a holiday. Even little lies are considered great sin on Daygan. Daygan is also the day of equality because on this day the king and nobles were to dress just like ordinary people so as not to be recognized in the crowd and nobody was supposed to give order on Daygan. Many Christian, Jewish and Muslim customs have root in Mithraism which was the oldest religion practiced in human society. Original Celebration of Christmas has been due to birthday of Mithra/Mehr (25st Dec) celebrated in Persia, Rome and other parts of Europe by Mithraists, Coincidence with Jewish Hanukkah (Festival of Lights) is not just an accident. An old tradition that would serve as a green movement today was that everyone pledged to plant a cedar tree during the festival of Yalda. The oldest record of the Yalda night celebrated throughout the world dates back to 1735 B.C. On December 25th Persians celebrated “Mithrakana” (Birth of Mithra) and hanged a wreathe of green cypress on their doors and wore red and gave gifts to their loved ones and feasted the night together. It must be added that the only birthday celebrated by Zoroastrians is the Birthday of “Asho Zarathushtra”, a unique human personality of Good Guidance for all times and climes. But the Iranians have, like many other nations, finding reasons and excuses to celebrate as many joyful occasions as they can make it! Yalda is one of them.

1725 B.C. - Norouz or new day, is wonderful and ancient Persian national celebration that reflects the rich cultural heritage of Iran. Norooz is the most cherished of all the Persian festivals and has been celebrated for more than 3500 years according to the latest archeological, historical and scientific proto-Indo-Iranians discoveries and evidence. The Persian New Year always begins on the first day of spring (March 20th each year, at the time the sun enters Aries) Its exact time is calculated according to ancient astronomical methods established by a solar calendar in Iran. Norouz ceremonies are symbolic representations of two ancient concepts - the End and the Rebirth; or Good and Evil. It is a celebration of spring equinox and represents ancient Persians' impressive understanding of science and astronomy. A few weeks before the New Year, Iranians clean and rearrange their homes. They make new clothes, bake pastries and germinate seeds as sign of renewal and decorate their family Norouz table with “Seven Sheen”. The ceremonial cloth is set up in each household. Troubadours, referred to as Haji Firuz, disguise themselves with makeup and wear brightly colored outfits of satin. These Haji Firuz, singing and dancing, parade as a carnival through the streets with tambourines, kettle drums, and trumpets to spread good cheer and the news of the coming new year. Some of the activities during Norooz are Spring cleaning, painting eggs, family reunions, Persian dancing, exchanging presents, visiting neighbors and friends etc. just to name a few. The Norouz holiday and celebrations ends by having a massive family picnic on the 13th day of Spring (Sizdah Be-dar).

1100-800 B.C. - Three groups of Aryan nomads: The Parsis (In South and South-Western parts) and the Medians (Central and North-Western parts) and the Parthians (North-Eastern and Eastern parts) united their Kingdoms and migrated to the Iranian plateau and together with the ancient Persians they eventually founded the Median Empire (728 B.C. – 549 B.C.). The Medes were Iranian people, who lived in the north, western, and northwestern portions of present-day Iran, and roughly the areas of present day Tehran, Hamedan, Azarbaijan, north of Esfahan, Zanjan, and Kurdistan. This region was known in Greek as Media. By the 6th century B.C, the Medes were able to establish an world empire. The Persians in the South-Western parts eventually supplanted and absorbed the Median empire in the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

  Naghsh-e Rostam is an archaeological site in Persepolis that dates to 1000 B.C.

750 B.C. - Medes were one of the three western Iranian tribes that moved, along Persian and Parthian, from their original homeland into the western and southern territories of the Iranian Plateau, probably around 1000 B.C. According historical tradition, around 700 B.C, the leader of one of the Median tribes that was most likely located around the future city of Ecbatana, organised the Median tribes and was elected as the king of the Medes. Each tribe was divided into classes, and this system was translated into the greater tribal confederacy. The priestly class, the soldier/ruler class, the artisan class, and the agricultural class are the ones we can identify.

693 B.C. - Assyrians Destroyed Susa in Persia. The notorious army of Ashur Banipal captured Susa and razed it to ground. The Assyrians had built a very strong army that ruled over a vast area without any tolerance for other civilizations. Their source of wealth was plundering the weak and not let them regain power. They enslaved many nations including the Jews. After they destroyed the Elam kingdom leaving behind an ancient ruin called the Burnt City. An alliance between the Medians and Persians put an end to the Assyrian terror forever. Cyrus the Great defeats the Median king Astyages at the battle of Pasargadai and becomes the king of both kingdoms. After their defeat, many Medians were settled in the region in order to prevent Assyrians from emerging again. Susa was rebuilt during the Achaemenid era and became the second winter capital for official affairs. Construction of the Apadana palace was successfully finished in 521 B.C.

559 B.C. - Cyrus the Great defeats the Median king Astyages at the battle of Pasargadai and becomes the king of both kingdoms. He established the Persian Empire in 550 B.C. Cyrus the Great had a concept of “One World” and the “Unification of All People around the known World”. By accepting the practices and religions of the subject people they created the world's first religiously tolerant empire. They evolved an administrative system that was sufficiently flexible to cater for the multitude of different languages, races, religions and cultures while maintaining the fundamental unity of government necessary to maintain the empire which was the largest empire the world had known, stretched in three continents, east-west from borders of China to Greece and north-south from Central Russia to north Africa. From 2500 years ago Persia ruled the civilized world for at least 1130 years; Median Dynasty 728–549 B.C, Achaemenid Dynasty 559-330 B.C, Parthian Dynasty 250 B.C. - 226 A.D. and the mighty Sassanid Dynasty 226-651 A.D. continue »

550 B.C. - The Persian Empire was democratic in nature and was the first ever Federal system in the world! Each State had absolute internal autonomy to do as they pleased in their own internal affairs. It was a primitive form of Federalism in comparison to today's Federal systems, but imagine back then when everyone including China, Egypt, Greece and Rome practiced slavery and colonialism, Persia granted internal autonomy to all states. All states had control over their affairs, their Educational system, local languages and even their own military forces! The only things that Persepolis required was absolute obedience to central government on international political and military affairs, and of course everyone had to learn Persian as the first or second language. How could they not to? Persian Empire owned the world and was the sole superpower in the globe. Persian was the International Language back then! His respect for local traditions, laws, languages, and religions set the foundation of a relatively benevolent empire. continue »

540 B.C. - Babylonia surrendered peacefully to Cyrus the Great as he entered the city. He was welcomed as a liberator because of his compassionate policies. He liberated and protected the 50,000 Israelites who were imprisoned by Babylonians and allowed them to return to their native land to reconstruct their temple in Jerusalem. Cyrus was the first king who put an end to slavery and dictatorial oppression, his goal was to exterminate such inhuman traditions around the world. By doing so, the Persians pioneered the freedom of religion and culture of the minorities in the world. Cyrus was later considered as a messiah sent by Yahweh in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) as the patron and deliverer of the Jews. From these statements it appears that Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, was the monarch under whom the captivity of the Jews ended. continue »

539 B.C. - October 29 is The World Cyrus Human Rights Day celebrated worldwide. Babylon's seizure completed on this day. Supporters of human rights cherish this day to mark the famous Cylinder of Cyrus which is known to be the first chapter of human rights in the world history. Cyrus observed a policy of tolerance during his time that was the key to creation of the greatest empire on the earth so far. The Declaration of Human Rights written by the emperor Cyrus II of Persia has been hailed as the first charter of human rights, predating the Magna Carta by more than one millennium and in 1971 the United Nations was published translation of it in all the official U.N. languages. It is now kept in the British Museum and it is no exaggeration to say that it is one of the most precious historical records of the world. Also a replica of the Cyrus Charter of Human Rights is kept at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. continue »

530 B.C. - Cyrus the Great was killed in battlefield from a wound inflicted from a poisonous arrow during a campaign against the Massagetes of central Asia. He is considered as the most respected world leaders to date. He always fought side by side with his soldiers and never left them alone in the battlefield. He respected the culture, language and religion of subdued nations and did not impose Zoroastrian religion or assimilate nations in similar methods. He considered all nations equal in terms of their rights. He was a very down to earth person and his wish was to be buried in Pasargadae in order to turn into Persian soil once again. He apologizes to people for not being able to use the soil of his tomb for some time. Cyrus the great, the founder of the greatest form of united nations to date rests in peace in Pasargadae shedding light on the future of the world civilization.

529 B.C. - The son of Cyrus the Great “Cambyses” (Kambujiya, 529-521 B.C.) is crowned king of Persia. Cambyses showed the same broad minded tolerance which had distinguished his father. When he conquered Egypt, he repaired the great temple of Neith which had been damaged by his soldiers, and had himself instructed in the mysteries of Isis. Cambyses had a reign full of speculations and there are many rumors and lies surrounding his life written by Greek historians (Herodotus), they portray him as a mentally sick king that assassinated his own brother Bardia, killed the sacred Apis bull of Egypt, burnt the body of Amasis, and committed suicide in 522 B.C.

525 B.C. - Cambyses defeats the Egyptian king Psamtik III at Pelusium. When Cambyses was conquering Egypt, someone calling himself Smerdis claiming to be his brother rebelled and proclaimed king after Cambyses was murdered in 521 B.C. Smerdis is then overthrown (killed) by Darius the Great, (Darius I) married Atousa to reinforce his legitimacy. Atossa was the daughter of Cyrus the Great and a the half-sister of King Cambyses.

522-486 B.C. - The reign of Darius the Great marked the zenith of the Persian Empire. Upholding the tradition established by Cyrus, Darius valued the rights of all people under his rule. The following inscription appears on his tomb: By the favor of the great God I believe in justice and abhor inequity. It is not my desire that the weak man should have wrong done to him by the mighty....Darius' goal was to be a great law-giver and organizer. He structured the empire under the satrapy system (similar to national and local governments). He built many roads, ports, banking houses (the word “check” comes from Old Persian), elaborate underground irrigation systems and a canal to link the Nile to the Red Sea (an early precursor of the Suez Canal). In the 19th century, archeologists in Egypt discovered an inscription by Darius commemorating the completion of the canal: I am a Persian. I commanded to dig this canal from a river by name of Nile which flows in Egypt....After this canal was dug, ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia, thus as was my desire.

Darius revolutionized mankind's economic activities by introducing one of the earliest (certainly the first on such a massive scale) forms of common coinage in history, the darik. This initiative, along with the standardization of weights and measures and the codification of commercial laws, stimulated world trade and elevated the Persian Empire's economy to new levels of prosperity.

Reflecting the wealth and the multi-cultural dimension of the Persian Empire, Darius initiated the building of the Persepolis palace. For its construction, artisans and materials were gathered from different corners of the empire. Another project undertaken by Darius was the royal road, the world's longest, extending 1,500 miles (see map). Due to an extensive network of relays, postmen could travel the road in six to nine days, whereas normal travel time was three months. The motto of the Persian postal service became memorable: stopped by neither snow, rain, heat or gloom of night. The US postal service also adopted this motto and the famous Pony Express mail delivery resembled the original Persian design. The origins of polo date back to this time. Persian nobility played an early form of polo for both sport and combat training.

480 B.C. - At the night of the Comet, before his most trusted and elite force The Mighty Immortals, Darius the Great paid homage to his beloved Forefather, Cyrus the Great... at his resting place in Pasargadae. He held-up the departed kings sword as a symbol of freedom and retribution, screaming for vengeance to the gods of underworld, crying; he may never rest until the day that his honor is restored, assuring his ancestors that he shall not forget the words carved on his father's tomb as they reverberate in his ears till eternity.

485 B.C. - Emperor Xerxes (Xšayāršā) was son of Darius the Great and Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great. After his accession in October 485 B.C, he suppressed the revolts in Egypt and Babylon that had broken out the year before and appointed his brother Achaemenes as governor or satrap over Egypt. King Xerxes of Persia held a one hundred and eighty-day feast in Susa to display the vast wealth of his kingdom and the splendor and glory of his majesty. The King ordered his queen Vashti to appear before him and his guests wearing her crown, to show off her beauty. But when the attendants delivered the king's command, Queen Vashti refused to come. Furious at her refusal to obey, the King asked his wise men and the seven princes of Persia for advice, according to the law; they advised the King to search for a new queen. The King followed this advice, then began searching for a new queen by means of a beauty contest. Beautiful young women were gathered to the palace from every province. Esther was advanced for this role by Mordecai, her cousin and guardian. For 12 months each woman underwent beauty treatments in the harem, after which she would go to the King. She was given anything she wanted to take with her from the harem to the King's palace. King Xerxes chose Esther to be his wife and queen.Xerxes does not bear the title of King in the Babylonian documents dated from his reign, but rather only by the titles King of Persia and Media, Great King, King of Kings (Shahanshah) and King of nations (i.e. of the world).

490-479 B.C. - In their wars with Persia, the Greek city-states were never a threat to the Persian heartland. What Persia did not achieve through war, it obtained through diplomacy. After the Persian-Greek wars ended, Persian kings successfully played the Athenians and Spartans against each other for 150 years. Persia's financial and naval assistance was instrumental in Sparta's victory over Athens in the Great Peloponnesian War. Afterwards, Persia began supporting the Athenians. The Persian influence over the two Greek city-states was such that the Persian King Artaxerxes II was asked to mediate between them, leading to the King's Peace of 387 B.C.

550-334 B.C. - The Achaemenid Persian Empire became the dominant world power for many centuries. It made possible the first significant and continuous contact between East and West. It was the world's first religiously tolerant empire and consisted of a multitude of different languages, races, religions and cultures. Prior to the rise of the Roman Empire, it set a precedent for the importance of the rule of law, a powerful centralized army and an efficient and systematic state administration. However, the greatest legacy of the Persian Empire was that it demonstrated for the first time how diverse peoples can culturally flourish and economically prosper under one central government. Persian culture is richly veined with artistic accomplishment. It's difficult to imagine science, architecture, painting, literature, music, dance, and, not least, Oriental carpets, without the finely-wrought aesthetic contributions of ancient Persia.

  What Persia did not achieve through war, it obtained through diplomacy

334 B.C. - In January 334 B.C, The king of Macedonia: Alexander, Invaded Persia after his victory over the Persian army and reached Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenian Persian Empire. Alexander was an admirer of Persian Kings and especially Cyrus the Great. He conquered Persia but the Persian culture conquered him. He married with the Persian Kings: Darius III daughter (Roxana) and ordered all his generals and 10,000 of his soldiers to follow suit in a mass Persian wedding. Alexander called himself an Achaemenid Persian King! He tried however to emulate the Persian court customs and attempted to create a new culture, a mixture of both Persian and Hellenistic. Alexander and his Army also plundered Persia, he ordered the execution of many Persians, allowed his troops to indulge themselves in plunder and rape and, in a drunken rage, set torch and destroyed Persepolis, the magnificent palace complex of the kings in revenge for all the Persian-Greek wars many centuries before and also because he was not yet the sole ruler of the Persian Empire, and it was too dangerous to leave the enormous treasures behind, where his enemies could recapture them. Yet, Alexander paid tribute to Cyrus the Great at his tomb. This shows how much Cyrus the Great was respected, even in the eyes of his fierce enemies. When Alexander returned several years later and saw the ruins, he regretted his act deeply. The ancient painting below is showing Alexander's troops burning and looting the main palace in Persepolis. When Alexander conquered the Persians, he burned many of the grand buildings and libraries in Persepolis and destroyed or stole many of its royal treasures.

323 B.C. - Alexander died. Although a masterful general, he lacked administrative skills. Shortly after his death, his empire was divided among his contesting generals. An important legacy of his conquest of Persia was the introduction of the Persian imperial practices into the West. Many of these practices particularly those relating to state administration and the rule of law were later adopted by the Roman Empire.

323-141 B.C. - The Seleucid Dynasty was established by one of Alexander's generals. After Alexander's conquest, Persia fell under a foreign occupying force. The subsequent Seleucid Empire was obviously not Persian, but Greek. They did not arrive with the intent of evolving Persian culture, but rather to dominate it, use it, and overwhelm it with another culture: Greek. Some of the results were positive, in so much as Greek culture is as rich as ours and has much to offer. Nevertheless, since it set out to overwhelm and subjugate Persian culture instead of simply enriching its foundations, it can be viewed only as a foreign occupation. Fortunately, it did not succeed. The Persians gradually defeated the Greek Seleucids and consolidated their control over all of Persia and restored Iranian culture.

247 B.C. - 224 A.D. - The Parthians (Ashkanian), a tribal kingdom from northeastern Iran of the coastal areas broke the Macedonian dynasty, gradually defeated the Greek Seleucids and consolidated their control over all of Persia and they remained true to the spirit and culture of Persia, and did their best to make positive contributions. The name of the founder of the dynasty, Arsaces, became the title of all Parthian kings in much the same way that the name of Caesar was later to become the title of all Roman emperors. They fought numerous times with the Romans. Their victory over the Romans in 53 B.C. elevated the Parthians into a superpower of their era. The Romans were especially in awe of the expert mobile Parthian archers (hence the term: the Parthian Shot) who inflicted enormous casualties upon successive Roman armies. Although the Parthians ruled for almost five centuries, very little of their civilization has survived, except for some small art objects.

171 B.C. - The Parthian Empire was the most enduring of the empires of the ancient Persia, which ruled for over 400 years. The Parthian empire rose to power under king Mithradates and the end of this loosely organized empire came in 224 CE, when the last king was defeated by one of their vassals, the Persians of the Sassanid dynasty. The Parthian Dark Age refers to the most confused period of Parthian history, from the late years in the region of Mithradates II (123 - 88 B.C.) to the establishment of the sole rule of Orodes II (c. 57-38 B.C).

The Parthians originated from the Parni tribe of the coastal areas east of the Caspian Sea. In order to legitimize their rule, the Parthians claimed descent from the Achaemenid Dynasty. In many fields of culture, the Parthians represented a continuation of the Achaeaminds. The administrative system was arranged after the Hellenistic Seleucids, involving cities built according to Hellenistic layout as well as the formation of vassal kingdoms. The Parthian period of Persian history was one of wealth, and great building projects. The region profited from trade between Asia and the Mediterranean. Despite internal stability, the northeastern borders were often under nomad attack, and a wider area suffered from repeated attacks by the Scythians.

The Parthian period holds an important place in military history. Several Parthian King of Kings, including the first and the last-fell in action, and their three century long conflicts with Rome had profound effects on Roman military organization. For they not only succeeded in repulsing repeated Roman attempts at the conquest of Persia, but they inflicted severe defeat seven in their last days-upon the Roman invaders; and to face the long-range fighting tactics of the Parthian armoured cavalry and mounted archers, the Romans started to supplement their armies of heavy and drilled infantry with auxiliary forces of riders and bowmen, thereby increasingly modifying traditional Roman arms and tactics. The Parthians finally submitted to another Iranian dynasty which had close links with them and retained the power of their nobility, one reason for their defeat being that while they still wore the old style lamellar armour, the Sasanians went to battle with the Roman type mail shirt, i.e., armour of chain links, which was more flexible and afforded better protection.

  Head of a mighty Parthian King Warrior (from the Louvre Museum in Iran)

198 A.D. - Roman invasion destroying much of the infrastructure of the Parthian kingdom. The Roman attack on Parthia started 115 CE. (83 years earlier). The king of the Parthian Empire: Ardashir (the Greeks and Romans called him Artaxerxes) organized a very strong and unified government and took the army and invaded Roman territory in West Asia. Neither side won a clear victory, and this set the pattern for the next four hundred years: a lot of fighting but no real change in the borders. The power and influence of this handful of Parthian noble families was such that they frequently opposed the monarch, and would eventually be a “contributory factor in the downfall” of the dynasty. The Parthians were later overthrown by The Sassanids by the year 224 and the revenge war with the Romans started.

221 A.D. - The Sassanids (The descendants of Sassan) coexisted with the Roman Empire, and there were many great battles between them. Many of the victories of Persians is carved in stone. They were proud of their Persian heritage, and they wanted to reestablish the borders of the old Persian empire. This meant reconquering all the land to the edge of the Mediterranean Sea from the Romans (Israel, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey), and also reconquering Egypt from the Romans. Like their Persian ancestors, these Sassanid Persians were Zoroastrians, and they also wanted to spread the Zoroastrian faith. The Sassanids, second only to the Achaemenids in their service to Persia were also a major defining feature of Persian culture and identity. They considered themselves the direct descendants of the Achaemenids, and obviously sought to preserve Persian culture and identity while serving their nation. They took a great role in advancing the foundations of Persian civilization in many different aspects.

  Sassanian is derived from King Sasan's name and means The descendants of Sassan

224 A.D. - Sassanian was the last Zoroastrian Persian Empire and the Strongest. The Empire could not rest cause of never ending wars. “Ardeshir Babakan I” founded the Sasanian dynasty. The Sasanians revived Persian culture and Zoroastrianism and made a conscious effort to return to the Achaemenian norms. The most important feature was the alliance of religion and government. He created a national empire based on imperialism and achieved unity through conformity. They sponsored trade both with their arch-enemy, the Romans/Byzantines, and the Chinese. Excavations in China have unearthed gold and silver Sasanian coins covering a span of many centuries.

226-241 A.D. - The leader of the Sassanids and the former king of the Parthian Empire was named Ardashir (the Greeks and Romans called him Artaxerxes). He organized a very strong and unified government. Then he took the army and invaded Roman territory in West Asia. Neither side won a clear victory, and this set the pattern for the next four hundred years: a lot of fighting but no real change in the borders.

The Sassanid Army - In the character of their warfare, the Persians of the Sassanid period differed greatly from their forebears under the Achaemenid kings. The principal changes which time had brought about were an almost entire disuse of the war chariot, the advance of the elephant corps into a very prominent and important position, and the increased use and pre-eminence of heavy cavalry on the Parthian model, including both heavy cataphracts and horse-archers. Five main arms of the service were recognized, each standing on a different level: the Golden-Armored War Elephants, the Silver-Armored War Horse, The Archers, and the Bronze-Armored elite foot archers who showered the enemy with storms of arrows. The heavy golden-armored war elephant corps always held the first position in line. These giant beasts acted as walking towers on battlefields and caused panic and disorder in enemy ranks, creating openings in the lines that cavalry could take advantage of. And finally the royal elite force called “Zhayedan” (The Immortals) numbered 10,000 men, like the Achaemenid predecessors, with the difference that they were heavy cavalry. Their task was mainly to secure any breakthroughs and to enter battles at crucial stages.

  A Silver-Armored Sasanian City Guard (Police) Cavalry at Ctesiphon (Sassanid Capital)

Ranks of the Sassanid Army:
  Commander-in chief. (Eran Spahbod)
  Field General (Spahbod)
  Commander of each of the four provincial divisions devised. (Padgospan or Padouspan)
  Margrave or Commander of the border guards. (Marzban or Kanarang)
  Head of the Royal Guard. (Poshtikban Salar)
  Senior rank responsible for army supplies. (Eran anbaraghbad)
  Senior vet who looked after the cavalry elite’s mounts. (Stor-bezashk)
  Castellan, Commander of a Castle and Fort. (Argbadh)
  Chief of an infantry division. (Payygan Salar)
  Head of a cavalry division. (Savaran Sardar)
  Commander of a gond division. (Gond Salar)

241 A.D. - The Reign of the mighty King Shapur I started and that same year also marks the death of King Ardeshir I. Shapur was the son of Ardeshir I (the founder of the Sassanid dynasty) and whom Shapur succeeded, he was also the son of the Arsacid princess “Lady Myrōd”. Ardashir had towards the end of his reign renewed the war against the Roman Empire and his son Shapur conquered the Roman Empire. Shapur later on personally considered one of the great achievements of his reign to be the defeat of three Roman emperors: Valerianus, Gordianus III and Philip. Under Shapur's reign, the prophet Mani, the founder of Manichaeism, began his preaching in Western Iran, and the King himself seems to have favoured his ideas. The Shapurgan, Mani's only treatise in the Middle Persian language, is dedicated to Shapur. The name Shapur, meaning “Son of a King”.

  The Reign of the mighty King Shapur I renewed the war against the Roman Empire

260 A.D. - The Great King Shahpur invaded the Roman Empire and took Emperor Valerian and the entire Roman army prisoner. He was victorious over three Roman emperors during his reign: Valerianus, Gordianus III and Philip. He also established Jondi Shahpur, a major center of higher learning. The ancient Painting below is showing the Surrender of Roms Emperor Valerian and Roman Senator to Shapour King of Persia (on horse-top). Emperor Valerian kneels and begs for mercy from King Shahpur of Persia while the Female Persian cavalry officer (left) is guarding along with nobleman of the Suren clan (with tall “beaked” hat). Rome was a brutal empire with her economy based on slavery, POWs and built on blood and their main goal was to conquer Persia but they never succeeded despite many endless, brutal and unnecessary wars that weakened both sides and cost many lives.

  King Shahpur I, invaded the Roman Empire and took Emperor Valerian prisoner

274 A.D. - Mani was the founder of a religion now called Manichaeism. He preached a universal philosophy which included elements of Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Christianity and Hinduism. Mani was borin in 216 A.D. in the province Babylon which was under Persian rule, his family was Persian, but his name is Aramaic-Persian. At the age of 12 and 24, Mani had visions where an angel told him that he would be the prophet of a last divine revelation. A the age of 26 Mani started on a long journey, where he stood forward as “Messenger of Truth”, and he travelled through the Persian Empire and reached as far as India. Mani practised under the protection of the Persian emperor, Shapur Shah I, most of his life. As his teaching quickly gained ground, he came in opposition to the Zoroastrian priests and after the death of Shapur Shah Mani lost his protection and was forced to leave Persia, he wandered the east, preaching a gnostic version of Mithraism. He considered himself an apostle of christ. When he returned to Persia, he was imprisoned and crucified by the orders of emperor Bahram and the Manichaean creed was suppressed. The death of Mani (276 A.D.) is retold as an incident similar to the crucifixion of Jesus.

488-528 A.D. - Mazdak was the founder of the philosophy called Mazdakism. He was the son of Bamdad who was a Zoroastrian priest and started preaching his doctrines. Mazdak believed in equal rights among human beings and advocated abolition of private property, the division of wealth, as well as nonviolence and vegetarianism. His ideas brought about a major class struggle between the peasants and the nobility. The followers of Mazdak raided the Palaces and Harems of the rich who, he believed, had oppressed the Persian population and caused much poverty. Mazdak embarked on a program of social reform and equal rights, which involved pacifism, anti-clericalism (anti-religious) and aid programs for helping the poor. Mazdak had government warehouses opened to help the poor. Mazdak emphasized good conduct, which involved a moral and ascetic life, no killing and not eating flesh and being kind and friendly and living in peace with other people. The leaders of the feudalist society and the political ranks staged several conspiracies that led to the total elimination of Mazdakism in 528 A.D. Mazdakism is believed to be the first form of socialism (communalism and populism) 1360 years before Marx published his famous manifest. Mazdak is considered to be the world's first “communist/socialist.”

531-579 A.D. - Persia recovered her glory during the reign of Khosrow I (Anushiravan), who defeated the Roman Empire and marked the height of the Sasanian dynasty. He promoted scholarship and sponsored the translation of Indian and Greek scientific and medical texts into Middle Persian or Pahlavi, Persia's native language. By the time of Khosrow I, Jondi Shahpur's library had amassed one of the largest collections of books in the world. He also gave refuge and financial assistance to philosophers fleeing oppression in the Byzantine Empire. Khosrow I was also a populist king, possibly a reflection of Mazdak's ideology and the civil conflicts that subsequently ensued. He made himself available to all his subjects; anyone could rattle his chain of justice and have an audience with the king. His famous prime minister, Bozorgmehr, reportedly invented the game of backgammon.

608-622 A.D. - The long and brutal war between Byzantium and Persia (539-591 A.D.) significantly weakened both sides and cost many lives. As a Last Resort the Sassanid Army used Huge Elephant Units and Heavy Cavalry Units during the last stages in the battle in order to end the “endless” war and to shock and outnumber the enemies strategically.

629-632 A.D. - Two consecutive female monarchs ruled over the Sasanian Empire, Purandokht and her sister Azarmidokht. Purandokht signed a peace treaty with the Byzantines. continue »

634 A.D. - In the years following King Khosrow's death, there were internal revolts and wars with the Roman Byzantine empire. This weakened Persia. At the same time the Arab forces (brutal nomadic tribesmen) were trying to attack and invade Persia from South. The Persian King Yazdegerd III was afraid of the Roman Empire (Byzantine) so he was not paying any attention to the rise of Islam and the invading barbaric savage Arabs. The first encounter between Sassanids and Muslim Arabs was in the Battle of the Bridge in 634 which resulted in a Sassanid victory, however the Arab threat did not stop there as the united Muslim army repeatedly attacked the southern borders of persia.

The Fall of the Empire - Rostam Farrokhzad was the Governor of the Persian Army during the Sassanid Dynasty under King Yazdegerd III. He captured “Ctesiphon” (The New Sassanid Capital) and he defeated the Roman Army several times. He added Armenia and Mesopotamia to the Persian Empire. A large Arab army had united against Persia (battle of Nehavand). The last Sassanid king Yazdegerd doubted they could do anything because their invasions always failed in the past. A long and brutal war against the savage Arab invaders started in the south borders of Persia at the worst time possible, the continuous 80 years of war with the Roman Empire had weakened the Persian Empire economically, militaristically, & spiritually and cost many lives and the last Sassanid king Yazdegard was not paying any attention to the rise of Islam and the invading arabs in the south at that time. Last but not least “The Persian Traitors” & Infidels who always betrayed Iran & spied for Rome or Arabs. Persian Traitors were many low lives who sold Iran by the pound, & they are still doing it as of now! The head of Persian forces & the Grand General in charge of the defense “Rostam Farrokhzad” figured what the Arabs were fighting for... for their hunger, and their new god “Allah”. For the first time Rostam, “The Mighty Lion of Persia” as they called him... felt outnumbered and could finally see the End. They thought the Sassanid Empire would last for thousands of years. Rostam stood in the front of his horse giving his last speech telling his army if he falls, he will take as many savage Arabs as he can. “Let this last day be the worse for them...” The persian borders falls, but the resistance from the people makes it more bloody though they were not armed, Resistance was led by a woman. Don't forget our brave and mighty Lions and Lionesses!

  Governor Rostam Farrokhzad - Mighty Sassanid Army General and Warrior

The last Sasanian ruler, Yazdegerd III, died in 651 A.D. as a fugitive. Then came a major turning point in our history: the Arabic barbarian invasion of our Iran. This was the second of many foreign occupying forces to dominate Iran. With the Arabic invasion, Iran was again faced with an enemy from within which aimed to undermine its civilization and identity. The first factor used to destroy a national identity was an attack on its predominant religion: “Zoroastrianism”.

  Click Here to read the Historical letter of Yazdgird III to the Arab Calif Omar.

639 A.D. - After successfully defending itself against the Roman Byzantine Empires for centuries, the Persian Empire was swiftly vanquished by arabs (brutal nomadic tribesmen) armed with a newly acquired faith, Islam. There were four Sasanian kings in four years, and because there was no real authority, the Arabs were able to defeat the Persians, who were still Zoroastrians. The history of Zoroastrians of Iran after the Arab conquest can be summarized in three words: oppression, misery and massacre. The Arabs invaded Persia not only for its reputed wealth, but to bring into the faith new converts and to impose Islam as the new state religion. They were religious zealots who believed that “in a religious war if one kills or is killed, one’s place in heaven is secure”. To impose the new religion, the old culture and creed had to be destroyed. Therefore first they targeted the libraries, universities and schools. Only few examples reflect the enormity of the calamity that befell upon Persia at 630 A.D. To conquer Persia and force Islam, the Arab invaders resorted to many inhumane actions including massacre, mass enslavement of men, women and children, and imposition of heavy taxes on those who did not convert.

641 A.D. - When the Arab commander Saad ibn-e Abi Vaghas faced the huge Persian library of Cteciphon (capital city), he wrote to Omar (Calif/Ruler of Arab Muslims): what should be done about the books?. Omar replied that the “blasphemous” books are not needed, as for us only Koran is sufficient. Thus, the huge library was destroyed and the books or the product of the generations of Persian scientists and scholars were burned in fire or thrown into the Euphrates. Later by the order of another Arab ruler (Ghotaibeh ibn-e Moslem) in Khwarezmia, those Persians who were literate with all the historians, writers and Mobeds were massacred and their books burned so that after one generation the people were illiterate. Other libraries in Ray and Khorassan received the same treatment and the famous international University of Gondishapour declined and eventually abandoned, and its library and books vanished. Only few books survived, because the Persian scholars quickly translated them into Arabic in order to save them.

646-660 A.D. - Mass massacre and conversion: By the order of the Arab commander “Yazid ibn-e Mohalleb” in Gorgan so many Persians were beheaded that their blood mixed with water would energize the millstone to produce as much as one day meal for him, as he had vowed and ordered the soldiers to cut off the tongue of anyone who dared to speak Persian. This is why in Arabic, Persians are called “Ajam”, meaning mute! The event of blood mill has been quoted by the generations of historians and Persian Zoroastrian families to this day, yet our books of history have been silent about it. In recent years however, disenchanted Iranian scholars have been writing about the blood mills and in fact this event has been reported by our historians of the Islamic era. On the way to Mazandaran (northern Iran) the same commander ordered 12,000 Persian captives to be hanged at the two sides of the road so that the victorious Arab army pass through. Upon arrival, many more were massacred in that province and heavy tax (Jizya) was imposed on the survivors who did not convert.

Some historians have estimated that a total of 400,000 Persian civilians were massacred. After the battle of Alis, the Arab commander (Khalid ibn-e Valid) ordered all the prisoners of war be decapitated so that a creek of blood flows. When the city of “Estakhr” in the south put up stiff resistance against the Arab invaders, 50,000 residents were slaughtered. One of the battles by the Arabs has been named, “Jelovla” (covered), because an estimated 100,000 bodies of the slain Persian soldiers covered the desert. It is reported that 130,000 Persian women and children were enslaved and sold in the Mecca and Medina markets and large amount of gold and silver plundered. One respected Iranian scholar recently wrote, “Why so many had to die or suffer? Because one side was determined to impose his religion upon the other who could not understand”. The Arabs colonized, exploited, raped and despised the population. They even named the Persian converts “Mavali” or “liberated slaves”. Nevertheless history reflects the extent of atrocities committed by the Arab conquerors.

  Arab Taziz Raping and Killing Civilians in Persia and enslaving women and children

661-750 A.D. - The Umayyad Caliphate emerged as the rulers of the Islamic world. Although they maintained the Sasanians' administrative practices, the Umayyads considered Islam as primarily an Arab religion and were wary of Persian culture. They tried to force the Arabic language upon the Persians, leading to the demise of the Middle Persian or Pahlavi alphabet in favor of the new Arabic/Persian alphabet in use to this day. They also tried to eradicate the independent and unique sense of Persian identity in the same way that they “Arabized” and assimilated the Egyptians and the Assyrians, but with minimal success.

696 A.D. - Arabic became the official language of the Islamic world but not in Persia. During the Islamic period many Persian scholars attempted to revive the Persian culture and history and reintroduce the national identity to the despised nation. As the Arabs destroyed and burned all the non-Arabic and Pahlavi writings, Persian scholars found a solution to save the books that was to translate them into Arabic. One of the rare books that survived the carnage was “Khodai-namak”, a Pahlavi writing of the Sassanian era.

750 A.D. - With Persian financing and support, the Abbasids ended Umayyad rule. Their victorious armies were led by a Persian general named Abu Khorasani. The Islamic capital was relocated from Damascus to Baghdad, a newly built city adjacent to the old Sasanian capital, Ctesiphon. This relocation symbolized the rising power of Persians in the Islamic world.

750-1258 A.D. - The Abbasid Caliphate relied on Persian ministers and bureaucracy for many state functions. Persian customs began to take deep roots under the Abbasids. The offices of the vizier (minister) and the divan (or bureau for state revenue) were copied from the Sasanian model and later caliphs adopted the Persian courts' ceremonial procedures and the trappings of the Sasanian kings. The Persian Barmakid family became architects of the Abbasid political structure and several members of their family became notable grand viziers. The Abbasid reign marked the pinnacle of the power and glory of the Islamic world.

795-838 A.D. January - Babak Khoramdin is considered as one of the most heroic freedom fighters of Persia who initiated the Khoramdinan movement. It was a freedom fighting movement aimed to overthrow the Tazi Arab Caliph occupiers and at the time rulers of Persia. He was born in Balal Abad region of Azarbaijan (Northwest of Iran). Babak's knowledge of history, geography, and the latest battle tactics strengthened his position as a favorite candidate for commander during the early wars against the Arab occupiers. One of the most dramatic periods in the history of Iran was set under Babak’s leadership between 816-837 A.D. During these most crucial years, they not only fought against the Caliphate, but also against Tazi Arab barbaric behaviors and customs. Eventually, Babak, his wife, and his warriors were forced to leave Ghaleye Babak after 23 years of constant successful campaigns that killed over half a million Arabs and Babak's mighty army (Red-Shirts) was never once defeated. He was eventually betrayed by an officer under his command named Afshin and was handed over to the Abbasid Caliph. During Babak’s execution, the Arab Caliph’s henchmen first cut off his legs and hands in order to convey the most devastating message to his Persian followers. Legend has it that Babak bravely rinsed his face with the drained blood pouring out of his cuts, thus depriving the Caliph and the rest of the Abbasid arab army from seeing his pale face, a result of the heavy loss of blood.

After Babak’s execution many Iranians started revolts in different regions of the country in order to regain their freedom. This in turn, forced the Arab Caliphs to use more violence against the Iranian population in order to keep the country under control but they failed and eventually Arab rule over Persia began to diminish. Babak’s sensational and legendary campaign to defend Persia’s national identity and interest is still pursued after nearly 1200 years in Southern Azerbaijan every year on his birthday in July the Iranian pilgrims visit Babak’s fortress to hail their Iranian hero, Babak, as the symbol of Persian resistance against Tazi Arab occupiers. The pilgrims read poetry including Shahnameh (the Book of Kings - Iran’s most famous epic by Ferdowsi) and play traditional Persian music. They also light up bonfires to follow traditional rituals of ancient Persia.

  Click Here to see a summary video clip in Persian about Babak's life and History.

820-1220 A.D. - Arab rule over Persia began to diminish. The two centuries Arab rule of Persia has been compared to a nightmare associated with the moans of widows and orphans, “a dark night of silence that was interrupted only by the hoot of owls and the harsh sound of thunder”. Finally the Arabs were driven out of Persia. All the cultural, scientific and philosophical advances of the so-called Islamic world came out of Iran, and were advanced by Iranian minds. And so these advances were not Islamic, but Iranian. Various local Persian monarchs rose to power: the Tahirids (821-873), Saffarids (867-903), Samanids (873-999), Ziyarids (928-1077) and Buyids (945-1055). They were followed by Turkic dynasties with Persian culture: the Ghaznavids (962-1186), Seljuqs (1038-1153) and Khwarazmis (1153-1220). The lost ancient Persian language was restored and it soon blossomed into one of the most poetic languages of the world. The Samanids were the first to adopt Persian as the official language of their court. Once again, Persia became a world center for art, literature and science. It was renowned for the impulse that it gave to Iranian national sentiment and learning. Key figures in nearly all fields of endeavor in the world, Persians played a major role in the advancement of Islamic civilization.

840 A.D. - Sibovayh, a Persian scholar, laid the foundation for the codification of Arabic grammar and wrote the first Arabic dictionary.

850 A.D. - Khwarazmi, a remarkable mathematician and astronomer, wrote precise astronomical tables and the first work of algebra, The Book of Integration and Equation. The word “Algebra” is derived from this book's title and the word “Algorithm” from his own name. He helped establish the concept of zero and perfect the decimal system. The culmination of his work, along with that of other Islamic scholars, produced the Arabic numerals - a modified version of which replaced the Roman numerals in the West and which is still in use to this day.

879 A.D. - Yaqub Leys was the first Persian ruler to openly revolt against the Arabs. He brought much of Persia under his control and promoted the Persian language. The statue of Yaqub Laith Saffaari can be found in Dezful, south of west Iran.

865-925 A.D. - Razi, one of the most accomplished physicians, chemists and philosophers of his era, invented the medical usage of alcohol and wrote a number of books on a variety of topics, especially medicine. One of his more famous treatises, On Small Pox and Measles, was translated into many European languages.

940 A.D. - Rudaki crystallized the new Persian language and its lyrical poetry. He was the first major poet of the Persian language. His contribution was especially important since poetry was to become one of the main pillars of Persian culture and identity.

940-1020 A.D. - Ferdowsi, Iran's national poet and possibly its greatest hero, completed the national Iranian epic, Shahnameh, The Book of Kings, in 1010. It took him 30 years and consisted of some 50,000 couplets. He was a genuine defender of Persian national identity and he deeply resented the Arab influence. He wrote his entire epic story with minimal usage of Arabic-derived words. Shahnameh consists of mythical stories of pre-Islamic Persia. The book's chief epic hero is a noble knight named Rostam, who embodies values such as integrity, strength and chivalry. Ferdowsi is revered by all Iranians and most consider him single-handedly responsible for reawakening the Persian language & pre-Islamic history, identity & heritage of Iran. Shahnameh is written in almost pure Persian language, which in itself is extremely significant.

980-1037 A.D. - Avicenna Sina, one of the most significant scientists and philosophers, wrote over 200 books, including The Cannon of Medicine, an encyclopedia summarizing all the then known medical knowledge from across the world. This book was translated into Latin and remained the most influential book of medicine in the world until the 17th century. He was also a renowned philosopher who emphasized the use of logic and reason as means of discovering the truth.

945-1055 A.D. - The Buyids, from north-central Iran, defeated the Arab armies and captured Baghdad. Although they allowed the Caliph to retain his title, they reduced the role of the Caliph to that of a religious figurehead. The Buyids held the actual political power in the eastern Islamic world for a century.

1092 A.D. - Nizam al-Mulk was the renowned prime minister of Malik Shah of the Seljuq dynasty. Under his guidance, Malik Shah controlled virtually the entire eastern segment of the Islamic world, from Syria to Afghanistan. Nizam al-Mulk wrote the Siyasatnameh, The Book of Government and Politics. He argued for the regulation of court procedures, a systematic decision-making process and the restriction of arbitrary rule. He also established the Nizamieh schools in the major cities under Seljuq rule. They became the leading institutions of higher learning in the Islamic world. He was the benefactor of both Ghazali and Khayyam.

1058-1111 A.D. - Ghazali was recognized as the most prominent jurist and theologian of his time. He argued against a merely rational and logical interpretation of existence, in favor of a more mystic and spiritual understanding. He represented the view opposite to Ibn Sina's rationalism and significantly undermined the influence of Avicenna Sina. He was an important intellectual pillar of Sufism. Sufis strive for a deeper understanding of life and a closer communion with God through meditation, inner self-examination and the rejection of worldly possessions.

1048-1122 A.D. - Khayyam, a great mathematician, philosopher, poet and astronomer, performed the mathematical calculations to reform the Persian calendar, one of the most accurate calenders in the world and still in use to this day. Khayyam was often admonished because he was viewed as an “un-Islamic” iranian-nationalist. He helped build an important observatory in Isfahan and wrote his collection of quatrains, Rubaiyat. Dealing with the great enigmas of human existence, his poems celebrate the divine gifts of love and life. The Rubaiyat was translated by FitzGerald in the 19th century, helping Khayyam to become the most famous oriental poet in Europe. His work has since been translated into many other languages and millions of copies have been sold.

1206 A.D. - Gangis Khan united the Mongol clans and began his attempt at world conquest.

1220 A.D. - Gangis Khan and his Mongol hordes attacked Persia with unparalleled brutality, bringing about one of the worst catastrophes in the history of mankind. In Persia's northeastern provinces, his descendants, especially Hulagu Khan, razed almost every major city, destroyed libraries and hospitals and slaughtered entire populations. The death toll estimates ranged in the millions.

1227 A.D. - Gangis Khan died. His empire was divided among his sons. The Mongols extended their hegemony over major part of the Eurasian landmass from the Danube to the Pacific for the better part of two centuries.

1258-1353 A.D. - The Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258, thus ending the Abbasid Caliphate. The Il-Khanid dynasty gained control of the segment of the Mongol Empire covering Persia.

1271 A.D. - Marco Polo journeyed through Persia on his way to China. In his Book of Travels, he wrote about the Mongols' savagery: How sad it is, the destruction, waste and death inflicted upon this once mighty, prosperous and beautiful Persia.

1207-1273 A.D. - Rumi, (Hazrat Mawlana) the greatest mystical poet of the Persian language and the author of Mathnawi, elevated Sufism to unprecedented heights. Although a Persian, he lived in Anatolia (his parents had migrated in fear of the Mongols' brutality). His poetry and philosophy had a significant influence throughout the Islamic world. His disciples founded the famous Whirling Dervish mystic order. His poems have been widely translated into many of the world's languages and transposed into various formats; BBC News has described him as the “most popular poet in the world”.

1274 A.D. - Nasir Al-Din Tusi, an astronomer and philosopher, built the Maraghah observatory, the first observatory in the modern sense in the history of science. He developed the mathematical calculations showing the earth's revolution around the sun and its spherical shape and size. His work was later translated into Latin and predated, by some 200 years, that of Copernicus, considered the founder of modern astronomy and the originator of the idea of a solar-centered universe.

1213-1292 A.D. - Sa'di is one of the major Persian poets of the medieval period. He is recognized not only for the quality of his writing, but also for the depth of his social thoughts. His best and most significant Persian known works are “Bustan” and “Gulistan”. His poems exercised wide influence in India, Central Asia and as far as in China. His poems emphasized the interdependence of all mankind regardless of nationality, race or religion. He asked for the following inscription on his tomb: “From the tomb of Sa'di, son of Shiraz, the perfume of love escapes, thou shall smell it still 1,000 years after his death”.

1295 A.D. - Ghazan Khan became the first Mongol Il-Khanid leader to convert to Islam. After his conversion, the Mongols, like the Greek, Arab and Turkic invaders before them, became “Persianized.” Ghazan Khan's prime minister, Rashid ad-Din, was a Persian scholar who wrote one of the earliest works of universal history, Jami' Al-Tawarikh. After almost one hundred years of Mongol devastation, Rashid ad-Din's policies brought about a short-lived period of peace and prosperity. The vast Mongol Empire helped to facilitate the exchange of ideas and goods among China, India and Persia.

1320 A.D. - Kamal Al-Din Farsi pioneered major advances in the field of optics with his theories on refraction and reflection.

1320-1390 A.D. - Hafez, the greatest lyric poet of the Persian language, wrote his most famous work, The Divan. Hafiz is a beloved mystical poet who always refreshes the love of Zoroastrian faith in his poetry by calling himself a follower of the old Magi. Hafez was a Sufi and his poetry is characterized by the sense of beauty, love of humanity and devotion to God.

1405 A.D. - Timur (Tamerlane), a Turco-Mongol leader, conquered much of Persia and its surrounding areas. His conquests yet again consisted of unimaginable cruelty and devastation. Although brutal, he was also a patron of arts. He made Samarqand his capital and brought artists from all over Persia. Tamerlane is probably remembered most for his massacres and brutality. 80 000 were slain at Delhi (many of them flayed and burned alive) and the city itself did not recover until almost a century later, whole irrigation systems and agriculture centres were destroyed beyond repair, towers were made from the skulls of his enemies, at Sabzawar live captives were cemented between clay and brick to create minarets. He was responsible for ruining trade in the region and reducing populations by sometimes staggering amounts but despite this Tamerlane appears to have indulged in the arts and was much loved by his followers. Tamerlane died in 1405. After his death, his empire disintegrated, but his descendants ruled over various parts of Persia for almost a century.

1429 A.D. - Jamshid Kashani, a major mathematician, advanced number theory, invented the first calculating machine and participated in the astronomical activities at Samarqand.

1501-1524 A.D. - Shah Ismail I united all of Persia under Iranian leadership after some nine centuries of foreign or fragmented rule. Being a Shi'ite, he declared Shi'ism as the state religion and converted virtually all of Persia and some surrounding areas under his control from Sunnism to Shi'ism. Shi'ism became a medium for the Persians to differentiate themselves from the rest of the Islamic world, in particular from the Sunni Ottomans. To ensure its continuation as the state religion, the Safavid kings in general supported the Shi'ite clergy.

1587-1629 A.D. - The reign of Shah Abbas the Great marked the pinnacle of the Safavid dynasty. He developed a disciplined standing army and defeated the Ottomans. In 1598, he chose Isfahan as his capital. A strong supporter of the arts, especially architecture, he adorned Isfahan with some of the finest Islamic monuments in the world. He built a number of mosques, schools, bridges and a major bazaar. During his reign, Persian craftsmen and artists excelled in creating fine silks, cloths, porcelain, metalwork, calligraphy, miniatures and carpets.

1501-1722 A.D. - The two contemporary Islamic rivals of the Safavids, the Ottomans in Anatolia and the Mughals in India, relied on Persian artisans and poets for much of their arts and literature. Persian was the language of choice in both of their courts. This preference is evident from their poems and miniature paintings whose texts were almost exclusively written in Persian. Persian influence was especially prevalent in India, where it was also the cultural and administrative language; it remained so until the colonization of India by the British. The Taj Mahal's principle architect was a Persian named Ustad Isad and its architectural style was significantly influenced by Persian designs.

1722 A.D. - Mahmoud Khan (Moghul Khan), an Afghan chieftain and a vassal of the Safavids, attacked Persia and captured Isfahan with virtually no resistance, thus ending the Safavid dynasty.

1729-1747 A.D. - Nader Shah, an officer of the Safavids, was able to expel the Afghans and reunite the country. He was a brilliant military strategist, defeating the Ottomans, Russians, Indians and various local tribes. In his invasion of Mughal India, Nader Shah captured two of the world's greatest diamonds, the Sea of Light (now in Iran) and the Mountain of Light (now part of the British Crown Jewels). Nader Shah became increasingly paranoid and was assassinated by his own guardsmen. After his death, his great military machine collapsed.

1747-1779 A.D. - Karim Khan Zand gained control of central and southern parts of Iran. He was a compassionate ruler who refused to assume the title of Shah and referred to himself as the Representative of the People. He fought extensively with a rival tribe, the Qajars. After Karim Khan Zand's death in 1779 A.D. Aqa Mohammad Khan Qajar gradually vanquished the Zands and established the Qajar dynasty.

1795 A.D. - Although the Qajars succeeded in reuniting the country, they were generally weak and corrupt rulers. The economic and military gap between Iran and the West widened considerably under their reign - especially in light of the Industrial Revolution that was taking place in the West. However, the Qajar period also enjoyed a high degree of artistic excellence, producing some of Iran's finest paintings, tileworks and architectural monuments.

1813 & 1828 A.D. - European imperialism resulted in English and Russian penetration in Iranian affairs. The Qajars lost the Caucasus (present day Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan) to the Russians in two separate treaties: the Gulistan in 1813 and the Turkmanchay in 1828. As a result of the 1828 treaty, the Qajars were forced to enact the “Capitulation” law, exempting all foreign citizens from Iranian jurisdiction. This law deeply humiliated the Iranian people.

1851-1906 A.D. - The Qajars lost central Asian provinces to the Russians and were forced to give up all claims on Afghanistan to the British. These two European powers dominated Iran's trade and manipulated its internal politics. The Qajars and influential members of their court were bribed to sell many valuable concessions to the British, such as the Tobacco Concession which triggered a massive popular uprising.

1906 A.D. - Discontent with Qajar corruption and mismanagement led to the Constitutional Revolution and the establishment of Iran's first parliament or Majles. The constitutional aspirations for a limited monarchy were never to be fully realized. Although Iran never became an actual colony of imperial powers, in 1907 it was divided into two spheres of influence. The north was controlled by Russia and the south and the east by Britain. By the end of WW I, Iran was plunged into a state of political, social and economic chaos.

1921 A.D. - Reza Khan, an officer in the army, staged a coup. Initially the minister of war and then the prime minister, in 1925 Reza Khan decided to become the Shah himself. Although Reza Khan's initial objective was to become the president of a republic, the clergy, fearing a diminished role in a republic, persuaded him to become the Shah.

1925-1941 A.D. - The Pahlavi dynasty can be seen as one very important Iranian dynasty since the Sassanian Empire. The Iranian patriotism and service of Reza Shah the Great to the Iranian nation, culture, and identity is unquestionable. After a millennium and a half, he was the first to truly recognize the important role that our pre-Islamic heritage and civilization serve in our identity. The king sought to rebuild Iran where the Sassanians had left off. The Great Reza Shah Pahlavi's first priority was to strengthen the authority of the central government by creating a disciplined standing army and restraining the autonomy of the tribal chiefs. He embarked upon a series of modernizing and secular reforms, some of which were designed specifically to break the power of the clergy over Iran's educational and judicial systems. He provided public education, built Iran's first modern university, opened the schools to women and brought them into the work force. He initiated Iran's first industrialization program and dramatically improved Iran's infrastructure by building numerous roads, bridges, state-owned factories and Iran's first Transnational railway. In 1935, he officially requested all foreign governments to no longer refer to Iran as Persia, but as Iran. (The Iranian people themselves had always referred to their country as Iran.) Politically, however, Reza Shah forcibly abolished the wearing of the veil, took away the effective power of the Majles and did not permit any forms of free speech. With the outbreak of WW II, Reza Shah, wanting to remain neutral, refused to side with the Allies.

1941 A.D. - In need of the Trans-Iranian railway to supply the Soviets with wartime materials, the Allies invaded and occupied Iran for the duration of the war. Reza Shah was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and died in South Africa in exile in 1944.

1946 A.D. - Under American pressure, the Soviet Union was forced to pull out of Iran's northwestern province. It was the first and only time that Stalin gave back a WWII occupied territory.

1951-1953 A.D. - Iran's Majles passed a law sponsored by the nationalistic (soon to be prime minister) Dr. Mossadeq to nationalize Iran's oil from British control. The British, enraged by the threat to their oil concessions, froze all of Iran's Sterling assets and took their case to the International Court of Justice. The Court ruled in Iran's favor. Undeterred, the British placed a total trade embargo on Iran and enforced it with their navy, leading to the collapse of Iran's economy. Citing the threat of a communist takeover, British Intelligence and the CIA sponsored a coup to topple Dr. Mossadeq's government. In the midst of the coup, the young Shah, having thought the plan had failed, left the country. Shortly thereafter, Dr. Mossadeq's government was overthrown and the Shah was put back in power.

1962-1963 A.D. - The Shah introduced his White Revolution. It consisted of major land reform, workers' rights and women's suffrage, among other initiatives. His reforms did not develop as planned due to poor execution. In a series of public speeches, Ayatollah Khomeini attacked these reforms. He was arrested and then exiled. A series of reforms, consisting of 19 elements, were planned and introducted over a period of 15 years. the first 6 elements were introduced in 1963 and put to a national referendum on January 26th, 1963 with overwhelming approval by the public. To read further about the achievements and key constraints of the White Revolution.

1963-1973 A.D. - Iran experienced rapid economic growth and prosperity coupled with a relatively stable political climate. Iran's infrastructure, public health and educational institutions were expanded. A number of highways, roads, bridges, railroad tracks, water and sewage projects, factories, schools, universities and hospitals were built. Iran's military strength grew and its international prestige was enhanced.

1973-1979 A.D. - The oil embargo quadrupled Iran's oil revenue to $20 billion a year. This new wealth accelerated the Shah's timetable to make Iran “catch up” with the West. The Shah's determination to modernize Iran virtually overnight and at any cost led to cultural shock, alienation of the masses, inflation, corruption, economic bottlenecks, massive urbanization, rising expectations and increasing authoritarianism in dealing with these social, economic and political problems. By the late 1970s, the Shah's opponents, of all political affiliations, united behind Ayatollah Khomeini. The Shah was overthrown in 1979 by the Islamic Revolution and died in Egypt a year later. Unfortunately, the Pahlavi Dynasty’s nationalistic efforts were halted, undermined, and greatly reversed with the second Islamic invasion and the formation of an Islamic Republic based on the Arab-Islam ideology and cult. After 2,500 years of monarchy, Iran's government was changed to a theocratic republic, The Islamic Republic of Iran (at times referred to as the “Second Arab invasion”).

The Iranian people should once again have full political, socio-economic and cultural equality, the press should be free and there should be a separation of religion and state in Iran as it once used to be. Freedom does not come free and no one will ever deliver it to us in a silver platter. We must build relationships that are unimpeded by gender-based distinctions and discrimination. Freedom is the most precious value. It is the very essence of progress...

Iran's foreign policy - To help you comprehend Iran's current America policy, you need to look beyond the headlines and search for those fundamental cultural and psychological factors that drive Iran's foreign policy in general and its America policy in particular. No real grasp of Iran's behavior in world politics is possible without appreciating that the Iranian people take deep pride in their culture. They take pride in the influence of their ancient religion, Zoroastrianism, on Judaism, Christianity and Islam. They take pride in fifty centuries of their science, arts and artifacts, in the continuity of their cultural identity over millennia, in having established the first humane Federal World Empire more than 2500 years ago, in having organized the first international society which respected the religions and cultures of the people who were under their rule, in having liberated the Jews from Babylonian captivity, and in having influenced Greek, Roman, Arab, Mongol and Turkish civilizations. But this sense of pride in the greatness of their culture and history is countered by a deep sense of “victimization”. The Iranian people feel they have been oppressed by foreign powers during their long history. They remember that Alexander of Macedonia, Arabs, Mongols and Turks invaded and conquered their homeland. Iranians also remember that the British and the Russian empires exploited them economically and subjugated them politically, and that the CIA of USA destroyed their democratically-elected government and staged a coup in 1953 engineered by the British and American intelligence services that destroyed the popularly-elected government of Dr. Musaddiq. The United States returned the shah to the throne, and American economic, political, military and cultural domination ensued over the following quarter century until the revolution in 1979. Not to mention the Persian civilian airliner Iran Air Flight 655 that was shot down by US missiles on July 1988, killing all 290 passengers and crew aboard, including 66 children, ranking it among the deadliest airliner fatalities. The United States must bear its fair share of responsibility for the problems that have arisen in U.S.-Iranian relations.

Persian Identity - Iran has never been an Arabic country and never will be! Iranian people have very strong ties to their history, culture and language, which are distinctively Persian. They are very proud of their rich heritage, strongly admire their former King of Kings, especially Cyrus the Great and his legacy of introducing human rights in a political setting of the longest existing empire in world's history. Another reason for which Persians dislike being mistakenly identified as Arabs is because Arab Islamic army conquered Persia in a very brutal way and forced them to change their religion, and customs by the edge of a sword. When Arabs conquered Persia they destroyed our style of Federalism, Equal Rights, Freedom and Democracy and replaced those factors with central brutal government, prejudice and slavery. But Persian culture and rich history conquered them! Persia is the only country which didn't become an Arab country (like Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria and all the other ancient countries conquered and destroyed by Arabs) and in spite of centuries of invasions and foreign rule by Greeks, Arabs, Turks, Mongols etc. Persia has retained its own strong identity. For 14 centuries Arabs has tried to destroy our culture, our language, science, poetry, literature, philosophy, religion, race, traditions, celebrations, music, arts and of course our Calendar. They never fully succeeded! Wake up Persia! I want to end by saying that I am certain that light will overcome darkness/fanaticism, and Persia, alike the legendary bird “Simorgh of Shahnameh”, will once again rise from her ashes and regain her rich history. Persia, has always been home to those who throughout history have fought for the idea of freedom and equality.

“A great civilization is not conquered from without until it destroys itself from within.”

The Future - Iran today stands at the crossroads of history and we live in remarkable times, and thanks to the tyranny of the islamic republic, we are now able to shed the Islamic past and move ahead into the future. A future without Islam, or any other organised religion. In this, we are far more fortunate than the rest of the world, for once this regime crumbles into dust, the tyranny of religion will never again raise it's ugly head in our land, for we will never forget. Islam as an Arab ideology has been a disease for Iran and Iranians and the only people who have truly once and for all uprooted Islam from Iran are the Mullahs themselves in only three decades. In a way, we should be grateful to them for this remarkable achievment. For millenniums when invaders came to Persia, the Iranians never become the invaders; the invaders became Iranians. Their conquerors were said to have “gone Persian,” like Alexander, who, after laying waste to the vanquished Persia, adopted its cultural and administrative practices, took a Persian wife (Roxana), and ordered thousands of his troops to do the same in a mass wedding. Iranians seem particularly proud of their capacity to get along with others by assimilating compatible aspects of the invaders' ways without surrendering their own; a cultural elasticity that is at the heart of their Persian identity. “The Invaders Can't Control What's Inside Us”

Attention Note! :: www.Mani.tk" is NOT a political website. I have received many hostile E-Mail threats from Activists and fanatics, enough is enough! This is a personal site and I mainly created this website for my friends and family in the United States, Great Britain, Persia and Scandinavia.